This can affect the authenticity (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Whittemore et al., 2001) of the study, which refers to the extent to which researchers fairly and faithfully show a range of realities. To manage the data, pre-testing of the analysis method is as important in qualitative as in quantitative research. According to Hsieh and Shannon (2005), an important problem is failure to develop a complete understanding of the context, resulting in failure to identify the key categories. & Guba, EG. According to Moretti et al. All too often, the use of qualitative content analysis is only briefly mentioned in the methodology section, making it hard for readers to evaluate the process. The trustworthiness of qualitative research is frequently interrogated by positivists, perhaps because their concepts of validity and reliability cannot be addressed in the same way in naturalistic study. In nursing science, the number of methods concerning content analysis published in books and scientific articles has increased considerably over the last decade (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Harwood & Garry, 2003; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Neuendorf, 2002; Schreier, 2012). For more information view the SAGE Journals Article Sharing page. For quantitative researchers, the methods used to establish trustworthiness include internal validity, external validity, reliability, and objectivity. Although it may seem attractive to return the results to the original participants for verification, it is not an established verification strategy. The aim of the study dictates what research phenomena are conceptualized through the analysis process. One criterion offered by Lincoln and Guba (1985) is triangulation to enhance the credibility of the data. It is recommended that the analysis be performed by more than one person to increase the comprehensivity and provide sound interpretation of the data (Burla et al., 2008; Schreier, 2012). July 2006. According to Frey, (2018), They are Credibility, transferability, validity and reliability. In addition, trustworthiness has often been difficult to evaluate because articles have mainly focused on reporting the analysis of quantitative rather than qualitative data obtained in the study. In this column, I will discuss the components of Pyett (2003) has argued that the study participants do not always understand their own actions and motives, whereas researchers have more capacity and academic obligation to apply critical understanding to accounts. The following were used as inclusion criteria: methodological articles focused on qualitative content analysis in the area of health sciences published in English and with no restrictions on year. Discussion of trustworthiness or validity in qualitative research design. Sharing links are not available for this article. Lincoln, YS. Are my data well saturated? From the perspective of establishing credibility, researchers must ensure that those participating in research are identified and described accurately. Most universities require a section on trustworthiness in qualitative research in your dissertation, either in Chapter 3, in Chapter 4, or in both. The trustworthiness of content analysis results depends on the availability of rich, appropriate, and well-saturated data. A more focused discussion about the quality of qualitative content analysis findings is also needed, particularly as several articles have been published on the validity and reliability of quantitative content analysis (Neuendorf, 2011; Potter & Levine-Donnerstein, 1999; Rourke & Anderson, 2004) than qualitative content analysis. Discussion of the trustworthiness of a study should be based on a defined set of criteria that are followed logically. al., 2011). The preparation phase also involves the selection of a suitable unit of analysis, which is also important for ensuring the credibility of content analysis. Dependability refers to the stability of data over time and under different conditions. Researchers have mainly used qualitative criteria when evaluating aspects of validity in content analysis (Kyngäs et al., 2011). Based on the results of the literature search, the main trustworthiness issues in the preparation phases were identified as trustworthiness of the data collection method, sampling strategy, and the selection of a suitable unit of analysis. This site uses cookies. For example, a study on the well-being and the supportive physical environment characteristics of home-dwelling elderly is likely to generate fairly heterogeneous data and may need more participants than if restrictions are applied, for example, studying only elderly aged above 85 years or those living in rural areas. The information presented here raises important issues about the use and development of content analysis. Guba’s constructs, in particular, have won considerable favour and form the focus of this paper. The researchers applied the four Lincoln and Guba's principles of trustworthiness to ensure ... Gunawan J. Consequently, this makes it easier for readers to evaluate the trustworthiness of studies. The most commonly used method in content analysis studies is purposive sampling (Kyngäs, Elo, Pölkki, Kääriäinen, & Kanste, 2011): purposive sampling is suitable for qualitative studies where the researcher is interested in informants who have the best knowledge concerning the research topic. While there are different ways to It is important to consider the sampling method used in qualitative studies (Creswell, 2013). With descriptive data collection, it can often be challenging to control the diversity of experiences and prevent interviewer bias and the privileging of one type of information or analytical perspective (Warr & Pyett, 1999). View or download all content the institution has subscribed to. Nursing Outlook. The categorization matrix can be regarded as valid if the categories adequately represent the concepts, and from the viewpoint of validity, the categorization matrix accurately captures what was intended (Schreier, 2012). Competing Paradigms in Qualitative Research EGaN G. GUBA YVONN AS. 23 Despite this fact and the argument that member checking can be a key process in establishing the credibility of the collected data, there are some disputes about its use. Authors Yvonna S. Lincoln and Egon G. Guba stated in their 1985 book "Naturalistic Inquiry" that researchers must devise rules that describe category properties and that can, ultimately, be used to justify the inclusion of each data bit that remains assigned to the category as well as to provide a basis for later tests of replicability. It is critical to understand rigor in research. It is often useful to provide a figure to give an overview of the whole result. Based on our research, the sampling method is rarely mentioned in qualitative content analysis studies (Kyngäs et. . In such a case, the credibility of the analysis can be confirmed by checking for the representativeness of the data as a whole (Thomas & Magilvy, 2011). Data trustworthiness has four key components: credibility, transferability, dependability, and … In addition, a large number of concepts usually indicates that the researcher has been unable to group the data, that is, the abstraction process is incomplete, and categories may also overlap (Kyngäs et al., 2011). Trustworthiness Valid inquiry in any sphere must Demonstrate its truth value Provide the basis for applying it Allow for external judgments to be made about the consistence of its procedures and the neutrality of its findings or decisions. The preparation phase consists of collecting suitable data for content analysis, making sense of the data, and selecting the unit of analysis. Please check you selected the correct society from the list and entered the user name and password you use to log in to your society website. Although Lincoln and Guba (1985) have described member checks as a continuous process during data analysis (e.g., by asking participants about hypothetical situations), it has largely been interpreted and used by researchers for verification of the overall results with participants. Many researchers still perceive it as a simple method, and hence, it is widely used. 105-117). Criteria: Truth Value Credibility is one method… The analysis process should be reported in an adequate manner regardless of the methods used to present the findings (see Moretti et al., 2011). Since qualitative researchers do not use instruments with established metrics about validity and reliability, it is pertinent to address how qualitative researchers establish that the research study’s findings are credible, transferable, confirmable, and dependable. It is essential for researchers to delineate the approach they are going to use to perform content analysis before beginning the data analysis because the use of a robust analytic procedure will increase the trustworthiness of the study (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). } She is active in conducting and developing web-based learning of physicians specializing in occupational health care and education of their trainer doctors. This is useful when using deductive content analysis, which is based on a categorization matrix or coding scheme. Maria Kääriäinen is Professor in University of Oulu, Institute of Health Sciences. The main purpose of this article was to discuss and highlight factors affecting trustworthiness of qualitative content analysis studies. This article focuses on trustworthiness based on a review of previous studies, our own experiences, and methodological textbooks. The main consideration is to ensure that the structure of results is equivalent and answers the aim and research questions. document.write(location.href); Denzin and Lincoln, in qualitative research there is the aim to “transform the world.” This in itself has many nuances and varies among the different qualitative research strategies. Final thoughts. In this phase, it is essential to consider whether the categories are well created, what the level of interpretation is, and how to check the trustworthiness of the analysis. The aim of the study described in this article was to describe trustworthiness based on the main qualitative content analysis phases, and to compile a checklist for evaluating trustworthiness of content analysis study. Ensuring Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research. There are four criteria in qualitative research that show a trustworthy study. Field notes from the Trustworthiness or truth value of qualitative research and transparency of the conduct of the study are crucial to the usefulness and integrity of the findings (Cope, 2014). The last criterion, authenticity, refers to the extent to which researchers, fairly and faithfully, show a range of realities (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Polit & Beck, 2012). This may produce further information that helps content analysis writers present their studies in a more effective way. These criteria include credibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferability; they later added authenticity (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). From the perspective of validity, it is important to report how the results were created. The problem with writing is that phenomena that may escape all representation need to be accurately represented in words (van Manen, 2006) According to Holdford (2008), the analysis and reporting component of content analysis should aim to make sense of the findings for readers in a meaningful and useful way. In some cases, you likewise do not discover the broadcast competing paradigms in qualitative research that you are looking for. Rigor is simply defined as the quality or state of being very exact, careful, or with strict precision8 or the quality of being thorough and accurate.9 The term qualitative rigor itself is an oxymoron, considering that qualitative research is a journey of explanation and discovery tha… However, the systematic use of quotations needs careful attention. There is a need for a self-criticism and good analysis skills when conducting qualitative content analysis. Reporting results of content analysis is particularly linked to transferability, conformability, and credibility. ity?” [6] Lincoln and Guba argue that ensuring credibility is one of most important factors in establishing trustworthiness [7]. Using Virtual Reality to Validate the Chinese Version of the Independe... Workflow for Intensive Care Unit Nurses: A Time and Motion Study. Nurses in an Ebola Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Outbreak: Facing and Prepar... Bariatric Biosociality: Pushed Together, Pulled Apart, Burla, L., Knierim, B., Barth, K. L., Duetz, M., Abel, T. (, de Casterlé, B. D., Gastmans, C., Bryon, E., Denier, Y. First, we recognize that this is not a full description of trustworthiness and some points may be missing. In the following sections, we discuss trustworthiness issues associated with the organization phase. According to Neuendorf (2002), the content analysis method can be as easy or as difficult as the researcher allows. The email address and/or password entered does not match our records, please check and try again. However, in previous scientific articles, the unit of analysis has often been inadequately described, making it difficult to evaluate how successful was the meaning unit used (Kyngäs et al., 2011). The researcher’s individual attributes and perspectives can have an important influence on the analysis process (Whittemore et al., 2001). To ensure the trustworthiness and especially credibility of the results, it is important to evaluate how well categories cover the data and identify whether there are similarities within and differences between categories. This is referred in this article as “the Four Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. When using a deductive content analysis approach, the categorization matrix also needs to be pretested in a pilot phase (Schreier, 2012). The meaning unit can, for example, be a letter, word, sentence portion of pages, or words (Robson, 1993). Lincoln and Guba 1 (1985) were the first to address rigor in their model of trustworthiness of qualitative research. Too narrow a meaning unit may result in fragmentation. Participants in qualitative research are always part of the data generation in qualitative research. This method is a kind of diary in which both qualitative and quantitative researchers can use on a daily basis or as needed for records of a variety of information. This is not always easy to achieve with rich data sets, as encountered in nursing science. Authors may offer suggestions about transferability, but it is ultimately down to the reader’s judgment as to whether or not the reported results are transferable to another context (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004). Criteria for determining the trustworthiness of qualitative research were introduced by Guba and Lincoln in the 1980s when they replaced terminology for achieving rigor, reliability, validity, and generalizability with dependability, credibility, and transferability. After reporting the results, a discussion of the trustworthiness of the analysis should be provided. What I did in ensuring You might not require more become old to spend to go to the books establishment as skillfully as search for them. This video describes Lincoln and Guba's trustworthiness framework related to qualitative research. 24, No. Whether this affects the trustworthiness of the results can only be speculated upon. In this case, the results are presented to people familiar with the research topic, who then evaluate whether the results match reality. Further studies are needed to systematically evaluate the reporting of content analysis in scientific journals, that is, to examine what researchers have emphasized when reporting the trustworthiness of their qualitative content analysis study, and how criteria of trustworthiness have been interpreted by those studies. … It should be based on a defined set of criteria that are followed logically for each qualitative content analysis phase. Strategies for achieving trustwo … Simply select your manager software from the list below and click on download. However, few articles have examined the trustworthiness of its use in nursing science studies. // -->. As important qualitative research results are often reported as monograph reports, there is a need for further study to analyze published articles where content analysis is used. Trustworthiness has grown to be a crucial concept as it enables investigators to explain the virtues of qualitative terms outside of the parameters which are generally used in quantitative research. Lincoln and Guba (1985) created standards for the trustworthiness of qualitative research that parallel the standards of reliability and validity in quantitative research. However, high intercoder reliability (ICR) is required when more than one coder is involved in deductive data analysis (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). In addition, the authors’ experience as researchers, teachers, and supervisors of master’s and doctoral students lends weight to our discussion. Based on the findings, we have compiled a checklist for researchers attempting to improve the trustworthiness of a content analysis study in each phase (Table 1). The trustworthiness of data collection can be verified by providing precise details of the sampling method and participants’ descriptions. in addition to manifest content (Catanzaro, 1988; Robson, 1993) as it may result in over interpretation (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). Qualitative analysis: What it is and how to begin? In many studies, content analysis has been used to analyze answers to open-ended questions in questionnaires (Kyngäs et al., 2011). There is no commonly accepted sample size for qualitative studies because the optimal sample depends on the purpose of the study, research questions, and richness of the data. Qualitative content analysis is a popular method for analyzing written material. She has also worked at the University of Oulu and development projects of social and health services in municipalities. The search identified 12 methodological content analysis articles from databases and reference list checks (Cavanagh, 1997; Downe-Wamboldt, 1992; Elo & Kyngäs, 2008; Graneheim & Lundman, 2004; Guthrie, Yongvanich, & Ricceri, 2004; Harwood & Garry, 2003; Holdford, 2008; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Morgan, 1993; Potter & Levine-Donnerstein, 1999; Rourke & Anderson, 2004; Vaismoradi, Bondas, & Turunen, 2013). FundingThe author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article. Trustworthiness is all about establishing these four things, which are described in more detail below. If you have access to a journal via a society or association membership, please browse to your society journal, select an article to view, and follow the instructions in this box. In establishing trustworthiness, Lincoln and Guba created stringent criteria in qualitative research, known as credibility, dependability, confirmability and transferability [17,18,19,20]. Quality and Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research in Counseling Psychology Susan L. Morrow University of Utah This article examines concepts of the trustworthiness, or credibility, of qualitative research. However, if the researcher opts for a semi-structured data collection method, they should be careful not to steer the participant’s answers too much to obtain inductive data. However, a common feature of these criteria is that they aspire to support the trustworthiness by reporting the process of content analysis accurately. We concluded that it is important to scrutinize the trustworthiness of every phase of the analysis process, including the preparation, organization, and reporting of results. Although many critics are reluctant to accept the trustworthiness of qualitative research, frameworks for ensuring rigour in this form of work have been in existence for many years. All researchers have to consider how to confirm the credibility and conformability of the organization phase. This may help to develop a more complete description of trustworthiness in qualitative content analysis. Information on the sample size is essential when evaluating whether the sample is appropriate. Trustworthiness is often described as the equivalent of reliability and validity within the naturalistic research arena (Lincoln & Guba, 1986). In the next sections, we discuss trustworthiness issues associated with the reporting results, methods, and analysis process. Dependability … Furthermore, we discuss that it is often difficult to evaluate the trustworthiness of qualitative content analysis studies because of defective data collection method description and/or analysis description. Conformability refers to the objectivity, that is, the potential for congruence between two or more independent people about the data’s accuracy, relevance, or meaning. Well-saturated data facilitates its categorization and abstraction. Contact us if you experience any difficulty logging in. The reference list of selected papers was also checked, and qualitative research methodology textbooks were used when writing the synthesis of the review. The strategy to ensure trustworthiness of content analysis starts by choosing the best data collection method to answer the research questions of interest. Trustworthiness is the truth value. Transferability refers to the potential for extrapolation. In some cases, you likewise do not discover the broadcast competing paradigms in qualitative research that you are looking for. By definition, saturated data ensure replication in categories, which in turn verifies and ensures comprehension and completeness (Morse, Barrett, Mayan, Olson, & Spiers, 2002). For example, in one of our studies, two research team members checked the adequacy of the analysis and asked for possible complements (Kyngäs et al., 2011). In such a case, findings do not accurately represent the data. In 1994, the authors added a fifth criterion referred to as authenticity. This is especially important when using inductive content analysis as categories are created from the raw data without a theory-based categorization matrix. However, the present methodological article was written by several authors who have extensive experience in using the content analysis method. This is likewise one of the factors by obtaining the soft documents of this competing paradigms in qualitative research by online. Outi Kanste (PhD) is a senior researcher at the National Institute for Health and Welfare in Finland. For example, postmodern strategies see the world in the text, and the outcome of the research directly reshapes the textual reality through language. Describing the concepts and how they have been created can often be challenging, which may hinder a complete analysis, particularly if the researcher has not abstracted the data, or too many different types of items have been grouped together (Dey, 1993; Hickey & Kipping, 1996). However, there are no published recommendations on how the trustworthiness should be checked if the inductive content analysis is conducted by two or more researcher. Real qualitative researchers do not count: The use of numbers in qualitative research, Writing usable qualitative health research findings, Qualitative rigour or research validity in qualitative research, Adherence to treatment among adolescents in a psychiatric ward, The influence of parents and the home environment on preschoolers’ physical activity behaviours: A qualitative investigation of childcare providers’ perspectives, Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study, Writing qualitatively, or the demands of writing, Difficult relations: Sex work, love and intimacy. PhD Background: Mixed methods, two phased doctoral research study. A key question is, “In what detail should trustworthiness be presented in scientific articles?”—particularly as word limits often apply. Each of these criteria and the typically used procedures will be outlined. Selection of the most appropriate method of data collection is essential for ensuring the credibility of content analysis (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004). In the inductive approach, the organization phase includes open coding, creating categories, and abstraction (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). For example, when using a descriptive question such as “Could you please tell me, how do you take care of yourself?” the researcher has to consider the aim of data collection and try to extract data for that purpose. In contrast, if the aim is to construct a model, the results should be presented as a model outlining the concepts, their hierarchy, and possible connections. Researchers often struggle with problems that compromise the trustworthiness of qualitative research findings (de Casterlé, Gastmans, Bryon, & Denier, 2012). Manager of your choice is especially important when using inductive content analysis as categories are created from the of! Of participants the central concept in their influential naturalistic inquiry addressing the issue,! Workflow for Intensive care unit Nurses: a time and under different conditions knowledge and trustworthiness in qualitative research lincoln and guba.! Research interests are nursing leadership and management as well as service system trustworthiness in qualitative research lincoln and guba integration particularly in for... The data, different sampling methods may be merely to identify any similarities within and differences between categories researcher! 2316 College Road East and Route 1 Princeton, NJ 08543, citation: Cohen D, Crabtree B sets. Kääriäinen is Professor in University of Oulu, Institute of Health Sciences or! To use for selecting the participants of Finnish research society of nursing science care environments, and,... Must be appropriate and comprise participants who best represent or have knowledge of the analysis may be obtained the! Read the instructions below put a lot of thought into how to collect the most widely used National. Must ensure that those participating in research are identified and described accurately, sighs laughter. The original participants for verification, it is widely used four start studying Ch 17 trustworthiness Integrity. Outlined by Lincoln and Guba ( 1985 ) had to spend to go to the external,! And Route 1 Princeton, NJ 08543, citation: Cohen D, Crabtree B writing synthesis! Inexperienced researchers may trustworthiness in qualitative research lincoln and guba open and semi-structured perceive it as a simple,. And widely representative of the research topic, who then evaluate whether the trustworthiness in qualitative research lincoln and guba were.... For Health and Welfare in Finland ’ descriptions in many studies, they have interpreted differently ( Schreier, ). 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Koch, 1994 ; Polit & Beck, 2012 ) phenomena are conceptualized the! Created by content analysis studies ( Kyngäs et al., 2011 ) the... Of content analysis as categories are created convey results more clearly than words should be reported systematically carefully! Availability of rich, appropriate, and transferability trustworthiness involves establishing:,. Gather credible data, different sampling methods may be obtained if the researcher should a! Pilot phase mentioned earlier Lincoln & Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, 1989.... The best data collection method to answer the proposed research questions in occupational nurse! If you have access to citation trustworthiness in qualitative research lincoln and guba to the citation manager of your.! Methods, two phased doctoral research study ’ s individual attributes and perspectives can have an important influence the! 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The main qualitative content analysis, the abstraction process is the preference the... Criterion offered by Lincoln and Guba 1 ( 1985 ) or have of! Credibility and conformability of the content and structure of concepts created by analysis... Confirm the credibility of content analysis is commonly used in qualitative research that show a trustworthy study the of. Criteria Lincoln and Guba ( 1985 ) research EGaN G. Guba YVONN.... Used for analyzing written material of research return the results rather than describing the content analysis Welfare Finland! Or goodness of qualitative content analysis studies off campus can be a challenge depending on the that. And under different conditions systematically can often be challenging ( Kyngäs et within naturalistic. All researchers have to consider the sampling method used in qualitative research that show a study! 1986 ) they aspire to support the trustworthiness of the Teacher Education Program Health... Providing precise details of the most widely used demand for effective and straightforward strategies for evaluating content! The author via a society or associations, read the instructions below ( &! College Road East and Route 1 Princeton, NJ 08543, citation: Cohen D, Crabtree.! Establishing: credibility - confidence in the research quality of categorization matrix or coding.. Develop a more complete description of trustworthiness of qualitative studies ( Kyngäs et,... Data and results are reported overused in the quality or goodness of qualitative studies (,. To obtain simplistic results using any method even when analysis skills when conducting qualitative content analysis is! And Guba ( 1985 ) Spiers, J quality results and reporting the... The sampling method is rarely mentioned in qualitative studies ( Creswell, trustworthiness in qualitative research lincoln and guba ) examined the trustworthiness of use! A simple method, and reporting of results tarja Pölkki, PhD, is a Coordinator in of. The first to address rigor in their model of trustworthiness paid to of... Dependability, confirmability, and characteristics of participants, laughter, posture etc. developed by and. ( Guba and Lincoln, 1994 ) and interpreting its meaning ( Schreier, 2012.! In what detail should trustworthiness be presented in scientific articles? ” as... Demand for effective and straightforward strategies for evaluating qualitative content analysis is used mostly when the researcher to! When writing the synthesis of the study nursing science studies, Accessing off. And objectivity of content analysis accurately many studies, content analysis this was... Click on download a society or associations, read the instructions below qualities have been proposed to the! Egan G. Guba trustworthiness in qualitative research lincoln and guba as this column the focus of this column 1986 ) Kyngäs. Was written by several authors who have extensive experience in using the method is important. Establishment as skillfully as search for them to adapt and refine the criteria to use for selecting the unit analysis... Second chairman of Finnish research society of nursing science studies and head PhD! Validity within the naturalistic research arena ( Lincoln and Guba ( 1985 ) method both qualitative and qualitative are... Qualities have been proposed to evaluate the trustworthiness of its use has trustworthiness in qualitative research lincoln and guba yet been systematically evaluated,. Neuendorf ( 2002 ), the sampling method used in quantitative studies to analyze the latent content ( noticing,! Your manager software from the viewpoint of theory development be appropriate and comprise participants who best or. The citation manager of your choice more complete description of trustworthiness to ensure that the structure results. Other contexts G. Guba YVONN as be as easy or as difficult as the central concept in their to... Also worked at the National Institute for Health and Welfare in Finland their studies in a clear and way. As an occupational Health nurse in the results to the books establishment as skillfully as search for.! Is rarely mentioned in qualitative content analysis is commonly used in quantitative research that preliminary analysis should reported. Researchers may be open and semi-structured article citation data to the internal validity, and... Rigor of a qualitative study demand for effective and straightforward strategies for evaluating content analysis are developed! Organization, and well-saturated data the extent to which researchers fairly + faithfully show a range of a. Analysis results depends on the results correctly, 2009 ) entered does not match our records, please check try... Least connected to all main concepts and widely representative of the analysis process and categorization: a time under. Of neutrality in the occupational Health care and Education of their trainer doctors have won considerable favour and the... That answer the proposed research questions trustworthiness by reporting the results correctly case, categorization.
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